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The impact of stop-and-frisk policies on racial profiling in America's minority communities
This annotated bibliography example is a collection of recent research into the relationship between stop-and-frisk policies and racial profiling, and their impacts on minority experiences in the United States. The annotated bibliography paper covers five articles, which together portray the systemic disparities and injustices that are committed against ethnic and racial minorities-particularly those from Black and Latino communities-in encounters with law enforcement officials. This set of studies explores multi-faceted aspects of racial profiling: from the personal experiences among the targeted, to the impact of neighborhood racial composition on disparities in police stops and post-stop outcomes. The annotated bibliography writer points out in this example the still-prevalent problem that is racial profiling, showing just how socioeconomic elements, implicit bias, and geographic context all combine to marginalize minority groups in policing practices.
Octobre 30, 2024
* The sample essays are for browsing purposes only and are not to be submitted as original work to avoid issues with plagiarism.
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The Impact of Stop-and-Frisk Policies on Racial Profiling in America's Minority
Communities: An Annotated Bibliography
Institution
Student’s Name
Course Title
Instructor’s Name
Date of Submission
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The Impact of Stop-and-Frisk Policies on Racial Profiling in America's Minority
Communities: An Annotated Bibliography
Khan, M. R., Kapadia, F., Geller, A., Mazumdar, R., & Halkitis, P. N. (2021). Racial and ethnic
disparities in “stop-and-frisk” experience among young sexual minority men in New
York City. PLoS One, 16(8), e0256201.
This article examines the intersecting roles of race, ethnicity, and sexual minority status in
stop-and-frisk experiences among young sexual minority men living in New York City. From the
data obtained in the P18 Cohort Study, 2014-2019, the authors underline pronounced racial
disparities in stop-and-frisk experiences, pointing out that Black and Hispanic/Latinx participants
self-report notably higher levels of stop-and-frisk compared with their White peers. This study
also shows that the YSMM reporting economic hardship or mental health concerns were more
vulnerable to the police. Interestingly, marijuana use was associated with a larger number of
stop-and-frisk incidents among White participants but not as much among Black and
Hispanic/Latinx participants; it suggests that race and drug use influence policing differently.
The authors interpret the findings as reflecting systemic inequity, which stigmatizes an already
largely marginalized population due to cross-cutting minority statuses. They suggest increased
community resources for YSMM, rather than punitive policing practices, and also emphasize
economic and mental health vulnerabilities that should be addressed in order not to further the
stop-and-frisk rate among these groups.
Bell, J. C. (2022). Law Enforcement and Racial Profiling Among African Americans and
Hispanics in the United States. Walden University.
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This phenomenological qualitative research explores the lived experience of racial profiling
among African Americans and Hispanics in contacts with police officers in the US. In the study,
Bell examines perceptions about racial profiling by interviewing and surveying eight
participants: four African Americans, two Hispanics, and two Whites. These findings indicated
that the African American and Hispanic respondents felt that they were being discriminated
against, harassed, and treated as criminals by the police. The claimed effects of racial profiling
included gun violence and shootings from the police. The key themes identified by Bell relate to
negative interaction from the police and call for reform in policing practices. He calls for new
methods of practice that will not involve racial profiling, together with legislative changes to
prevent any racial profiling behavior. Bell concludes that education and awareness for both
police and minority communities could result in social development.
Schenker, L., Sylvan, D., Arcand, J., & Bhavnani, R. (2023). Segregation and
“Out-of-Placeness”: The Direct Effect of Neighborhood Racial Composition on Police
Stops. Political Research Quarterly, 76(4), 1646-1660.
This paper examines the role of neighborhood racial composition in shaping police stop patterns,
analyzing the ways in which segregation shapes the use of "out-of-place" status as a guide to
targeting by law enforcement. The authors argue that greater racial segregation results in
increased police surveillance over African Americans and Hispanics, especially in predominantly
White precincts where members of these groups are more likely to be stopped by the NYPD.
Using statistical data, the authors show that a precinct's racial composition tends to be indicative
of stops: the more White-majority neighborhoods, the more police stops. This research
underlines the rich interplay between geographic context and race in policing practices and really
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suggests that racial bias and neighborhood demographics each prominently factor into how
minority groups are watched and profiled.
Levchak, P. J. (2021). Stop-and-frisk in New York City: Estimating racial disparities in post-stop
outcomes. Journal of Criminal Justice, 73(1), 101784.
This paper focuses on the disparities in outcomes between Black and Latino pedestrians and their
White counterparts in stop-and-frisk incidents in New York City. Using inverse probability
weighted regression and covariate exact matching on NYPD stop-and-frisk data from 2008
through 2012, Levchak finds evidence that Blacks and Latinos are more likely to be frisked and
experience non-weapon force than Whites, even after accounting for the relevant stop
characteristics. It is also important to underline that the research does not find significant
associations between race/ethnicity and weapon-related force. Levchak contextualizes the
findings within threat theory and implicit bias, suggesting that systemic biases create unequal
treatment of minorities in encounters with the police. This research points to the persistent issues
of racial profiling in stop-and-frisk, showing such practices institutionally disproportionate to
minority communities.
Ly, L. (2021). Racial Profiling: Understanding the Practice of Stop-and-Frisk in New York City.
Spectra Undergraduate Research Journal, 1(2), 1-11.
This article explores how the New York Police Department continues to grapple with its racial
profiling issue in light of the seminal Floyd et al. v. City of New York et al., 2013, where it was
found that the NYPD stop-and-frisk practices were racially discriminatory. Ly attempts to
establish whether, in fact, racial profiling against Black civilians was something that has
continued past Floyd. He studies the association of race with stop, frisk, and arrest rates using
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T-tests of the data of the NYPD from 2011 to 2015 and 2019-a sample size of more than 1.4
million stops. It follows that racial profiling has remained a great problem, targeting Black
civilians compared to their White counterparts. The research contributes to the bigger consensus
that racial profiling and police discrimination are still pervasive in the practice of law
enforcement in the United States and that systemic reforms addressing deeper issues are
required.
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References
Bell, J. C. (2022). Law Enforcement and Racial Profiling Among African Americans and
Hispanics in the United States. Walden University.
Khan, M. R., Kapadia, F., Geller, A., Mazumdar, R., & Halkitis, P. N. (2021). Racial and ethnic
disparities in “stop-and-frisk” experience among young sexual minority men in New
York City. PLoS One, 16(8), e0256201.
Levchak, P. J. (2021). Stop-and-frisk in New York City: Estimating racial disparities in post-stop
outcomes. Journal of Criminal Justice, 73(1), 101784.
Ly, L. (2021). Racial Profiling: Understanding the Practice of Stop-and-Frisk in New York City.
Spectra Undergraduate Research Journal, 1(2), 1-11.
Schenker, L., Sylvan, D., Arcand, J., & Bhavnani, R. (2023). Segregation and
“Out-of-Placeness”: The Direct Effect of Neighborhood Racial Composition on Police
Stops. Political Research Quarterly, 76(4), 1646-1660.
Octobre 30, 2024
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Academic level:
Undergraduate 3-4
Type of paper:
Annotated bibliography
Discipline:
Criminal Justice
Citation:
APA
Pages:
3 (825 words)
* The sample essays are for browsing purposes only and are not to be submitted as original work to avoid issues with plagiarism.
