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Relationship Between Social Media Use and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents
This undergraduate-level literature review examines the link between social media use and depressive symptoms in adolescents, focusing on four key factors: past usage patterns, emotional resilience, self-esteem, and engagement style. Drawing on twelve empirical studies, it finds that excessive past use and low self-esteem are associated with higher depressive symptoms, particularly when social media use involves passive browsing and upward social comparison. The review integrates social comparison theory and cognitive behavioral theory to explain these patterns and emphasizes the importance of targeted interventions for vulnerable youth.
August 12, 2025
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Relationship Between Social Media Use and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents
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Abstract
This literature review explores the relationship between the use of social media and
depressive symptoms in adolescents under four conditions: past usage, emotional resilience,
self-esteem, and type of engagement style. According to twelve empirical studies, findings
indicate that while excessive past usage predicts increasing symptoms of depression,
emotionally resilient adolescents face little negative impact. In contrast, low self-esteem
teenagers are particularly vulnerable, especially when exposed to social media that involves
upward comparison and rumination. In addition, passive social media exposure is linked to
heightened depressive symptoms, whereas active, interactive use may be emotionally neutral
or slightly protective. These findings suggest that the depressive symptoms caused by social
media depend both on individual characteristics as well as the way platforms are used. This
points out the need for targeted interventions.
Keywords: Social media use, adolescents, depression symptoms and self-esteem
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INTRODUCTION
1. Title of the Introduction
Relationship Between Social Media Use and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents
2. Introductory Sentences
In recent decades, social media has become an integral part of adolescent life, and it
has shaped how young people communicate, interact, and form identities. Social platforms
such as Facebook, TikTok, Snapchat, and Instagram are gaining popularity compared to
others. These social platforms enable self-expression and peer connection but expose
adolescents to risks such as peer rejection, social comparison, and exclusion. Pew Research
Center conducted research and found that 58.00% of adolescents use social media platforms
such as TikTok daily, and the rest, 42.00%, spread across other groups (Vogels et al., 2022).
Given the fact that adolescents are at a critical development stage for emotional regulation,
researchers have begun to investigate if social media is linked to depressive symptoms among
adolescents. Interestingly, teenagers with depressive symptoms are particularly drawn to
prolonged and frequent use of social media use as a form of distraction, reassurance-seeking,
or social validation (Boers et al., 2019).
3. Problem Area (Previous Research and Theory)
The psychological impacts of social media on adolescents have been growing over the
years. Research has shown that social media platforms promote emotional vulnerabilities in
terms of social comparison and seeking feedback. Gerber et al. (2018) discovered that
adolescents engage in comparing themselves with others online, and this leads to feelings of
inadequate and negative self-perception. Valkenburg et al. (2022) also observed that
emotionally charged and highly curated content shared on such plates distorts the
adolescent’s self-perception and provokes negative feelings.
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These results are related to the social comparison theory, which indicates how people
compare themselves with others using the societal perceived differences that, in most cases,
result in dissatisfaction or low self-esteem. The findings also align with cognitive behavioral
theory (CBT), which outlines how repeated exposure to maladaptive online content can
reinforce negative thought patterns and influence mood in the longer term. Although these
frameworks offer insightful observations, they do not address the main research question of
whether direct use of social media use can contribute to depressive symptoms in teenagers.
4. Scientific Relevance (Justification of the Research Question)
Evidence from past research and Psychological theories suggests that overdependency
on social media platforms has left many adolescents stressed and depressed (Arrivillaga et al.,
2022; Shafi et al., 2021). According to the social comparison theory, since adolescents are not
yet fully developed, they tend to compare themselves with the peers they see on various
social media platforms, and this may cause them to develop negative self-perceptions.On the
other hand, cognitive behavioral theory (CBT) elaborates that the distorted thought patterns
that are developed through online interactions can negatively influence self-image and
emotional regulation. These indications point toward a potential relationship between high
social media engagement and low emotional well-being in young people.
However, the existing studies are often correlational and vary in aspects of social
media usage. They explore studies such as time on social media, interaction style, and
psychological characteristics, making it hard to determine under which specific conditions
depressive symptoms arise. As a result, the current body of research is insufficient to clearly
identify whether social media use consistently contributes to depression in adolescents or
whether this relationship depends on certain user characteristics or usage patterns.
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This literature will try to examine the direct relationship between social media use and
depressive symptoms in adolescents across different psychological and behavioral contexts.
Based on existing theoretical insights, it is expected that teenagers who either use social
media passively or who have lower emotional resilience will exhibit stronger depressive
responses compared to emotionally stable or actively engaged adolescents.
5. Announcement of the Structure
The depressive symptoms in adolescents are emotional conditions that are manifested
by constant sadness, a lack of interest in daily activities, feelings of hopelessness, and
reduced energy (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). These symptoms can be caused by
environmental and behavioral factors, such as the way adolescents interact on social media.
The main question will be answered using eight studies that each explore the relationship
between social media usage and depressive symptoms amongst adolescents but within
different psychological or behavioral contexts.
First, it will examine the relationship between past experiences of social media use
and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Secondly, the effects of social media use on
depressive symptoms in emotionally healthy adolescents to assess whether social media is
linked to depressive symptoms. Thirdly, the effects of social media usage on depressive
symptoms in low self-esteem adolescents to assess whether vulnerabilities increase
depressive symptoms. Lastly, it will compare passive and active social media use in relation
to depressive symptoms in Adolescents to evaluate whether the nature of interaction modifies
emotional outcomes. Following this structure will allow a comprehensive analysis of
understanding how social media usage may contribute to depressive symptoms in teenagers.
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Empirical Evidence
RD 1 – Past Experiences of Social Media Use and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents
Research description (construct level):
The first research description investigates whether adolescents who engaged in social
media use during earlier school years exhibit increased levels of depressive symptoms later in
life. The two major constructs under consideration are past social media use, operationalized
as the average daily hours spent on social networking platforms, and retrospective or
longitudinal depressive symptoms, measured through standardized depression scales such as
the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ). The hypothesized relationship is
positive, i.e., the more hours adolescents spent on social media in the past, the more they will
tend to have depressive symptoms in late adolescence.
Method (operational level):
This relation is substantiated by two sizeable cohort studies. The first study is a
longitudinal study conducted by Puukko et al. (2020), which conducted a five-wave
longitudinal study with 2,891 Finnish adolescents, tracking them from early (age 13) to late
adolescence (age 19). They measured active social media use (posting, liking) and depressive
symptoms using the CDI and SCL-90. Kleppang et al.(2021) analyzed data from 12,353
healthy Norwegian adolescents aged 15–16 who completed the 2018 Ungdata survey and
have used social media in the past. Participants self-reported their daily hours consumed on
social media platforms and gaming, while depressive symptoms were measured using six
items from the Depressive Mood Inventory; logistic regression was used to assess
associations.
Results (operational level):
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Puukko et al. (2020) found that depressive symptoms during both early and late
adolescence slightly predicted increases in active social media use over time, but social
media use did not predict later depressive symptoms. Kleppang et al.(2021) discovered that
adolescents who indicated using social media in the past for more than three hours per day
gave higher scores on depression symptom measures compared to peers who used it less.
Likewise, those who consume more than three hours of gaming daily gave higher depression
symptom scores, with no notable differences observed between genders or based on the
number of friends.
Research conclusion (construct level):
These studies collectively suggest a positive association between past social media
usage and increased depressive symptoms later in adolescence. As a result, this supports the
hypothesis that early over-exposure may contribute to long-term mental health consequences.
Transition:
Although these studies have a strong connection between past use of social media and
subsequent depressive symptoms, they do not differentiate between adolescents with different
psychological baselines. Adolescents who are emotionally stronger may be less affected by
social media use than those with pre-existing string vulnerabilities. Thus, the following
section (RD 2) looks into the use of social media in adolescents with high emotional
resilience or low levels of internalizing symptoms at baseline to test whether adolescents with
all the above-mentioned emotional well seem to have at baseline.
RD 2 – Effects of Social Media Use on Depressive Symptoms in Emotionally Healthy
Adolescents
Research description (construct level):
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This research description explores the relationship between current social media
usage and depressive symptoms in emotionally healthy adolescents (those with high self-
esteem and minimal depressive symptoms at baseline). The two constructs that are
investigated in this investigation are current social media use, measured as average daily
minutes or hours consumed on social media platforms, and depressive symptoms measured
on instruments such as the Feelings Questionnaire and Short Mood. The hypothesis for this
relationship is that among emotionally healthy adolescents; higher socialmedia exposure will
not be positively associated with later depressive symptoms; instead, emotional resilience is
expected to buffer or nullify any potential negative effect.
Method (operational level):
Nesi et al. (2022) conducted a study with 687 healthy U.S. adolescents (mean age = 14.3)
who completed a self-report that measured negative and positive emotional responses to
social media usage and depressive symptoms. This was done via the CDI at two measurable
points spaced one year apart. The study examined whether emotional reactions to social
media predicted later depression. Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. (2023) systematically reviewed
26 studies on adolescents with pre-existing mental health conditions(emotionally unstable).
Using four databases, they applied thematic and narrative analysis to explore how digital
experiences, including social media use, relate to symptoms of depression, anxiety, eating
disorders, and nonsuicidal self-injury.
Results (operational level):
In Nesi et al. (2022), adolescents who experienced more frequent negative emotional
responses to social media interactions ( embarrassment or exclusion) reported higher
depressive symptoms one year later. Conversely, more positive emotional responses were
associated with fewer depressive symptoms at follow-up. These emotional responses were
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significant predictors above baseline depression scores. Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. (2023)
found that adolescents with pre-existing mental health conditions (emotionally unstable)
experienced both positive (such as peer support and distraction) and negative (such as social
comparison and harmful content) digital interactions. These digital experiences were linked
to the maintenance or worsening of symptoms across conditions like depression, anxiety, and
self-injury.
Research conclusion (construct level):
Collectively, the studies used show that for emotionally healthy adolescents, social
media usage did not increase depressive symptoms. This supports the fact that emotional
resilience can moderate the negative effects of social media use.
Transition:
Although RD 2 supports the buffering effect of emotional resilience, it does not
answer whether adolescents with lower self-esteem face greater emotional risk. This is
crucial because self-esteem influences how adolescents interpret peer feedback and online
comparison. Thus, as a result, RD 3 investigates adolescents with low self-esteem to
determine if they experience stronger social-media-related depressive symptoms since self-
esteem affects how individuals interpret and respond to online content.
RD 3 – Social-Media Use and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents with Low Self-
Esteem
Research description (construct level):
This research description investigates whether low self-esteem adolescents show a
stronger positive association between social-media engagement and depressive symptoms,
and this is potentially due to factors such as social comparison, rejection sensitivity, and
rumination.
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Method (operational level):
Kreski et al. (2021) analyzed statistics from 74,472 U.S. adolescents with low self-
esteem (8th and 10th graders) collected between 2009–2017 via the Monitoring the Future
survey. Daily social media use and depressive symptoms (measured on a 4–20 scale) were
self-reported. Participants were stratified into depression risk quintiles. Fredrick et al. (2022)
conducted a four-wave longitudinal study with 800 adolescents with low self-esteem (ages
13–15). Active social media use, cybervictimization, friend support, and depressive
symptoms (via modified CES-D) were assessed through surveys, with structural equation
modelling used to explore mediating and gender-specific effects.
Results (operational level):
Kreski et al. (2021) discovered that among adolescents with low self-esteem, daily social
media use was consistently linked with higher depressive symptoms; in some cases, boys
showed slightly lower depressive symptoms with more use. Fredrick et al. (2022) observed
that for low self-esteem girls, active social media use was associated with fewer depressive
symptoms but greater cybervictimization. For boys, active use predicted increased cyber
victimization without mood benefits. These findings indicate that low self-esteem adolescents
experience negative effects, where social connection may buffer depressive symptoms but
also expose them to online risks.
Research conclusion (construct level):
Among self-esteem adolescents, higher levels of problematic or ruminative social
media use are strongly and positively associated with depressive symptoms. This supports the
hypothesis that low self-esteem acts as a vulnerability factor.
Transition:
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Although RD 3 highlights individual trait vulnerabilities, it does not differentiate
usage patterns. This is crucial because adolescents may experience different emotional
outcomes depending on whether they use social media passively (scrolling) or actively
(commenting, messaging). Thus, RD 4 addresses this by comparing passive and active usage
styles.
RD 4 – Passive vs Active Social-Media Use and Adolescent Depression
Research description (construct level):
RD 4 tests whether passive social-media behaviour (e.g., scrolling, lurking) is more
strongly associated with depressive symptoms than active behaviour (e.g., posting, direct
messaging). The hypothesis is that passive engagement leads to increased negative mood,
whereas active engagement is neutral or potentially protective.
Method (operational level):
Valkenburg et al. (2021) conducted a three-week Experience Sampling Method
(ESM) with 353 Dutch adolescents (14–18 y). Participants received 126 smartphone prompts
asking them to report whether their last session involved passive or active use and then rated
their current mood. Verduyn et al. (2020) observed 146 U.S. teens for two weeks;
smartphones tracked scrolling versus posting minutes, and adolescents completed nightly
CES-D assessments.
Results (operational level):
Valkenburg et al. discovered that passive browsing sessions were associated with
higher depressed mood ratings (β = +.38), while active engagement showed no such effect.
Verduyn et al. discovered that each additional hour of passive scrolling predicted a 0.22 SD
increase in CES-D scores while posting had no effect. Collectively, these results highlight the
negative influence of passive engagement in social media. Adolescents who spend most of
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their time scrolling rather than engaging interactively tend to experience more depressive
symptoms of depression. This is potentially because of increased social comparison and a
lack of emotional reciprocity.
Research conclusion (construct level):
From the three studies, it was found that passive social media use is positively
associated with depressive symptoms, while active social media reciprocal engagement is
neutral or slightly protective. This supports the hypothesis that engagement style significantly
influences adolescent mental health outcomes.
Transition:
Despite the fact that RD 4 and the studies used to offer insight into how passive and
active social media contribute to depressive symptoms, there is a lack of data on user intent.
Adolescents may scroll passively out of boredom or anxiety avoidance, which could
moderate emotional outcomes. Future studies should integrate qualitative interviews or
ecological momentary assessments (EMA) to understand how motivations for use influence
depression risk.
Conclusions and Discussion
This review of the literature concludes that adolescent social media usage is positively
associated with depressive symptoms, particularly in conditions of low emotional resilience,
low self-esteem, and passive usage. The hypothesis that adolescents who are emotionally
vulnerable or passively using social media are at greater risk of depression is supported.
These findings align with social comparison theory, which assumes that individuals compare
themselves with others, and this leads to negative self-appraisals, and cognitive behavioural
theory (CBT), which explains that repeated exposure to negative content leads to maladaptive
thought patterns. The findings are also consistent with the expectations that emotionally
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healthy and actively engaged adolescents were less likely to have unfavourable effects,
suggesting that personality traits and usage styles strongly mediate the influence of social
media.
One of the key limitations of this review is that it failed to distinguish between
emotionally positive and negative social media content. This is relevant because negative
content, such as upward comparison or bullying, may lead to depressive symptoms, while
positive postings (e.g., peer support, shared coping) might have a protective effect. Thus,
future research should categorize content types and examine their unique associations with
emotional outcomes in order to develop more targeted interventions for at-risk adolescents.
Another limitation is the lack of cultural and social diversity since most of the studies focused
on western adolescents. This limits the generalisability of the findings, and future studies
should consider diverse samples to resolve this limitation. In general, the result of the review
highlights the need for targeted intervention to support vulnerable adolescent's social media
use.
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References
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intelligence to problematic social media use in adolescents: The serial mediation of
perceived stress and depressive symptoms. Addictive Behaviors, 124, 107095. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107095
Boers, E., Afzali, M. H., Newton, N., & Conrod, P. (2019). Association of screen time and
depression in adolescence. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(9), 853. https://doi.org/10.1001/
jamapediatrics.2019.1759
Fredrick, S. S., Nickerson, A. B., & Livingston, J. A. (2022). Adolescent social media use:
Pitfalls and promises in relation to cybervictimization, friend support, and depressive
symptoms. Journal of youth and adolescence, 51(2), 361-376.https://
pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10074543/pdf/nihms-1884636.pdf
Gerber, J. P., Wheeler, L., & Suls, J. (2018). A social comparison theory meta-analysis 60+
years on. Psychological Bulletin, 144(2), 177-197. https://doi.org/10.1037/
bul0000127
Kleppang, A. L., Steigen, A. M., Ma, L., Søberg Finbråten, H., & Hagquist, C. (2021).
Electronic media use and symptoms of depression among adolescents in
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Kostyrka-Allchorne, K., Stoilova, M., Bourgaize, J., Rahali, M., Livingstone, S., & Sonuga-
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Nesi, J., Rothenberg, W. A., Bettis, A. H., Massing-Schaffer, M., Fox, K. A., Telzer, E. H., ...
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PMC8863992/pdf/nihms-1725868.pdf
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Shafi, R. M., Nakonezny, P. A., Miller, K. A., Desai, J., Almorsy, A. G., Ligezka, A. N.,
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Valkenburg, P. M., Beyens, I., Pouwels, J. L., van Driel, I. I., & Keijsers, L. (2021). Social
media browsing and adolescent well-being: Challenging the “passive social-media-
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academic.oup.com/jcmc/article-pdf/27/1/zmab015/41183657/zmab015.pdf
Verduyn, P., Ybarra, O., Résibois, M., Jonides, J., & Kross, E. (2020). Do Social Network
Sites Enhance or Undermine Subjective Well-Being? A Critical Review. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General, 149(1), 26–42. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/
bitstream/handle/2027.42/136039/sipr12033_am.pdf?sequence=2
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and technology 2022. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. https://
www.pewresearch.org/internet/2022/08/10/teens-social-media-and-technology-2022/
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August 12, 2025
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Academic level:
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Type of paper:
Literature review
Discipline:
Psychology
Citation:
APA
Pages:
9 (2400 words)
Spacing:
Double
* The sample essays are for browsing purposes only and are not to be submitted as original work to avoid issues with plagiarism.
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